Romes great legacies to Western civilization
Order ID |
53563633773 |
Type |
Essay |
Writer Level |
Masters |
Style |
APA |
Sources/References |
4 |
Perfect Number of Pages to Order |
5-10 Pages |
Description/Paper Instructions
The concept of the state had been one of Romes great legacies to Western civilization, but for almost five hundred years after the disintegration of the Roman Empire in the West, the state did not exist. Political authority was decentralized, with power spread among many lords, bishops, abbots, and other types of local rulers. The deeply fragmented political units that covered the early medieval European continent did not have the characteristics or provide the services of a modern state.
Beginning in the last half of the tenth century, the invasions and migrations that had contributed to European fragmentation gradually ended, and domestic disorder slowly subsided. Rulers began to develop new institutions of law and government that enabled them to assert their power over lesser lords and the general population. Although nobles remained the dominant class, centralized states slowly crystallized, first in western Europe, and then in eastern and northern Europe. At the same time, energetic popes built their power within the Western Christian Church and tried to assert their superiority over kings and emperors. Monks, nuns, and friars played significant roles in medieval society, both as individuals and as members of institutions. A papal call to retake the holy city of Jerusalem led to nearly two centuries of warfare between Christians and Muslims. Christian warriors, clergy, and settlers moved out from western and central Europe in all directions, so that through conquest and colonization border regions were gradually incorporated into a more uniform Christian realm.
The timeline reads as follows:
936 to 973: Reign of Otto I in Germany; facilitates spread of Christianity in the Baltics and eastern Europe.
1059: Lateran Council restricts election of the pope to the college of cardinals.
1061 to 1091: Normans defeat Muslims and Byzantines in Sicily.
1066: Norman conquest of England.
1073 to 1085: Pontificate of Pope Gregory VII, proponent of Gregorian reforms.
1095 to 1291: Crusades.
1098: Cistercian order established.
1100 to 1135: Reign of Henry I of England; establishment of the Exchequer, Englands bureau of finance.
1154 to 1189: Reign of Henry II of England; revision of legal procedure; beginnings of common law.
1180 to 1223: Reign of Philip II (Philip Augustus) in France; territory of France greatly expanded.
1198 to 1216: Pontificate of Innocent III; height of the medieval papacy.
1215: Magna Carta.
1216: Papal recognition of Dominican order.
1221: Papal recognition of Franciscan order.
1290: Jews expelled from England.
1298: Pope Boniface VIII orders all nuns to be cloistered.
1302: Pope Boniface VIII declares all Christians subject to the pope in Unam Sanctam.
1306: Jews expelled from France.
1397: Queen Margrete establishes Union of Kalmar.
England
Throughout the ninth century the Vikings had made a concerted effort to conquer and rule all of Anglo-Saxon England. In 878 Alfred, king of the West Saxons (or Wessex), one of several kingdoms in England, defeated the Vikings, inaugurating a period of recovery and stability in England. Alfred and his immediate successors built a system of local defenses and slowly extended royal rule beyond Wessex to other Anglo-Saxon peoples until one law, royal law, took precedence over local custom. England was divided into local units called shires, or counties, each under the jurisdiction of a shire-reeve (a word that soon evolved into sheriff) appointed by the king. Sheriffs were unpaid officials from well-off families responsible for collecting taxes, catching and trying criminals, and raising infantry when the king required it.
The Viking invasions of England resumed, however, and the island eventually came under Viking rule. The Viking Canute (r. 10161035) made England the center of his empire while promoting a policy of assimilation and reconciliation between Anglo-Saxons and Vikings. When Canute died, his son Harthacnut struggled to maintain this empire, and at his sudden death in 1042 it was broken up, with separate rulers in Denmark, Norway, and England, though all were related by blood or marriage to one another, as was common for medieval rulers. England went to Edward the Confessor (r. 10421066), who was in the Wessex dynasty and was also Harthacnuts half brother; they had the same mother, Emma of Normandy, who played an important political role in the reigns of both her sons. Succession troubles continued when Edward died childless, and there were three claimants to the throne of England the Anglo-Saxon noble Harold Godwinson (ca. 10221066), who had been crowned by English nobles; the Norwegian king Harald III (r. 10451066), the grandson of Canute; and Duke William of Normandy, the illegitimate son of Edwards cousin.
In 1066 the forces of Harold Godwinson crushed Haralds invading army in northern England, then quickly marched south when they heard that William had invaded England with his Norman vassals. Harold was decisively defeated by William at the Battle of Hastings an event now known as the Norman Conquest. In both England and Normandy, William the Conqueror limited the power of the nobles and church officials, and built a unified monarchy. In England he retained the office of sheriffs, but named Normans to the posts. To determine how much wealth there was in his new kingdom and who held what land, he sent royal officials to every part of the country, and in every village local men were put under oath to answer the questions of these officials. In the words of a contemporary chronicler:
So very narrowly did he have it investigated, that there was no single hide [a hide was a measure of land large enough to support one family], nor yard of land, nor indeed
one ox nor one cow nor one pig was there left out, and not put down in his record: and all these records were brought to him afterwards.1 The resulting record, called the Domesday Book (DOOMZ-day) from the Anglo-Saxon word doom, meaning judgment, helped William and his descendants tax land appropriately. The book still survives and is an invaluable source of social and economic information about medieval England. It also helped William and future English kings regard their country as one unit.
Williams son Henry I (r. 11001135) established a bureau of finance called the Exchequer that became the first institution of the government bureaucracy of England. In addition to various taxes and annual gifts, Henrys income came from money paid to the Crown for settling disputes and as penalties for crimes, as well as money due to him in his private position as landowner and lord. Officials of the Exchequer began to keep careful records of all of this.
In 1128 Henrys daughter Matilda was married to Geoffrey of Anjou, a count of a large province in what is now France; their son became Henry II of England and inaugurated the Angevin (AN-juh-vuhn; from Anjou, his fathers county) dynasty. Henry II inherited the French provinces of Anjou, Normandy, Maine, and Touraine in northwestern France, and in 1152 he married Eleanor of Aquitaine, heir to Aquitaine, Poitou (pwah-TOO), and Gascony in southwestern France. As a result, Henry claimed nearly half of todays France, and the histories of England and France became closely intertwined, leading to disputes and conflicts down to the fifteenth century.
France
French kings overcame the Angevin threat to expand and increasingly unify their realm. Following the death of the last Carolingian ruler in 987, an assembly of nobles selected Hugh Capet (kah-PAY) as his successor. Soon after his own coronation, Hugh crowned his oldest surviving son Robert as king to ensure the succession and prevent disputes after his death. This broke with the earlier practices of elective kingship or dividing a kingdom among ones sons, establishing instead the principle of primogeniture (prigh-muh-JEH-nuh-choor), in which the kings eldest son received the Crown as his rightful inheritance. Primogeniture became the standard pattern of succession in medieval western Europe, and also became an increasingly common pattern of inheritance for noble titles as well as land and other forms of wealth among all social classes.
The Capetian (kuh-PEE-shuhn) kings were weak, but they laid the foundation for later political stability. This stability came slowly. In the early twelfth century France still consisted of a number of virtually independent provinces, and the king of France maintained clear jurisdiction over a relatively small area in the center of France, the Île-de-France. Over time medieval French kings worked to increase the royal domain and extend their authority over the provinces.
The work of unifying France began under the Capetian king Philip II (r. 11801223), also known as Philip Augustus. He took Normandy by force from King John of England in 1204, gained other northern provinces as well, and was able to secure oaths of fealty from nobles in provinces not under his direct rule. (See Viewpoints: Oaths of Fealty.) In the thirteenth century Philip Augustuss descendants acquired important holdings in the south. By the end of the thirteenth century most of the provinces of modern France had been added to the royal domain through diplomacy, marriage, war, and inheritance (Map 9.1).
MAP 9.1 The Growth of the Kingdom of France, 11801314 The kings of France expanded their holdings through warfare, diplomacy, and strategic marriages, annexing lands that had belonged to independent nobles and taking over territory from the Angevin kings who also ruled England. The province of Toulouse in the south became part of France as a result of the crusade against the Albigensians (see Criticism and Heresy).
The map shows the French Kingdom bordered by Spain on the south and flanked by the Bay of Biscay on the west and the Mediterranean Sea in the southeast. Il De France (Royal Domain) constituting of Orleans, Sens, Bourges, Lagny, and Paris was identified as the Crowned lands in 1180. Flanders with its main cities Bruges, Ghent, and Bouvines; Artois constituting Calais and Arras; Vermandois with its major city Amiens; Picardy; Normandy with Rouen, Caen, and Bayeux; Maine; Anjou; and Touraine with Tours form the northern belt of provinces that were added by Philip Augustus during 1180 to 1223. From 1223 to 1270, Languedoc on the south bordering Spain was added to the French territory.
The western central state of Poitou with its capital Poitiers; Blois, a central province; Champagne with its capital Reims and other prominent cities Soissons, Provins, Sens, Troyes, and Bar-sur-seine on the northeastern front; Toulouse with its main cities Montpellier and Toulouse on the southern side; and the city of Clermont were later added in 1270 to 1314. Bouvines in Flanders was the location of a major battle in 1214 while Brittany, Burgundy, and Bourbon remained royal fiefs.
The map also shows Spain, Aquitaine, and Gascony flanked by the Bay of Biscay on the west; the Holy Roman Empire with its cities Lyons, Avignon, Provence, and its central city Marseille on the Mediterranean coast with the Rhone River running along.
In addition to expanding the royal territory, Philip Augustus devised a method of governing the provinces and providing for communication between the central government in Paris and local communities. Each province retained its own institutions and laws, but royal agents were sent from Paris into the provinces as the kings official representatives with authority to act for him. These agents were never natives of the provinces to which they were assigned, and they could not own land there. This policy reflected the fundamental principle of French administration that officials should gain their power from their connection to the monarchy, not from their own wealth or local alliances. Philip Augustus and his successors were slower and less effective, however, than were English kings at setting up an efficient bureau of finance.
VIEWPOINTS
Oaths of Fealty
Rulers in the High Middle Ages often required oaths of fealty from nobles in conquered or allied provinces, building on earlier oath-swearing that linked lords and vassals. The first document below, from 1198, is Philip II of Frances formal acceptance of the oath of fealty of Count Theobald III of Troyes, who had just become ruling count in Champagne, which bordered France. Theobald died three years later, leaving his wife, Blanche of Navarre, with a young daughter and pregnant with another child. The second document is Blanches oath of fealty to Philip. She ruled as regent for twenty-one years, surviving a war of succession.
Philip II of Frances Acceptance of the Oath of Fealty from Theobald of Troyes, 1198
Philip, by the grace of God king of France. Be it known to all men, present and future, that we have received our beloved nephew, Theobald, count of Troyes, as our liege man, against every creature, living or dead, for all the lands which his father, count Henry, our uncle, held from our father, and which count Henry, the brother of Theobald, held from us. Count Theobald has sworn to us on the most holy body of the Lord and on the holy gospel that he will aid us in good faith, as his liege lord, against every creature, living or dead; at his command the following persons have sworn to us that they approve of this and will support and aid him in keeping this oath: Guy of Dampierre, Gualcher of Chatillon, Geoffroy, marshal of Champagne, etc. [vassals of the count of Champagne]
. We have sworn with our own hand that we will aid count Theobald against every creature, living or dead; at our command the following men have sworn that they approve of this and will support and aid us in keeping this oath: Pierre, count of Nevers, Drogo of Mello, William of Galande, etc. [vassals of the king]
. We have also agreed that our beloved uncle, William, archbishop of Rheims, and the bishops of Chalons and Meaux, may place those of our lands that are in their dioceses under interdict [a ban of all Christian ceremonies], as often as we fail in our duty to count Theobald, unless we make amends within a month from the time when they learn of it; and count Theobald has agreed that the same archbishop and bishops may place his lands under an interdict as often as he fails in his duty to us, unless he makes amends within a month from the time when they learn of it.
Oath of Fealty of Blanche of Navarre, Countess of Troyes and Champagne, 1201
I, Blanche, countess palatine of Troyes. Be it known to all, present and future, that I have voluntarily sworn to my lord, Philip, king of France, to keep the agreements contained in this
charter
. I have voluntarily sworn that I will never take a husband without the advice, consent, and wish of my lord, Philip, king of France, and that I will place under his guardianship my daughter and any child of whom I may be pregnant from my late husband, count Theobald. In addition, I will turn over to him the fortresses of Bray and Montereau, and give him control of all the men who dwell there and all the knights who hold fiefs of the castles, so that if I break my promise to keep these agreements, all the aforesaid men shall hold directly of my lord, Philip, king of France; and they shall swear to aid him even against men and against every other man or woman
. I will do liege homage to my lord, Philip, king of France, and I will keep faith with him against all creatures, living or dead.
Central Europe
In central Europe the German king Otto I (r. 936973) defeated many other lords to build his power from his original base in Saxony. Some of our knowledge of Otto derives from The Deeds of Otto, a history of his reign in heroic verse written by a nun, Hroswitha of Gandersheim (ca. 935ca. 1003). Hroswitha viewed Ottos victories as part of Gods plan: As often as he set out for war, there was not a people, though haughty because of its strength, that could harm or conquer him, supported as he was by the consolation of the heavenly King.2
Otto garnered financial support from church leaders and also asserted the right to control ecclesiastical appointments. Before receiving religious consecration and being invested with the staff and ring symbolic of their offices, bishops and abbots had to perform feudal homage for the lands that accompanied the church office. This practice, later known as lay investiture, created a grave crisis between the church and the monarchy in the eleventh century (see Emperor Versus Pope).
In 955 Otto I inflicted a crushing defeat on the Magyars in the Battle of Lechfeld (see Magyars and Muslims in Chapter 8), which made Otto a great hero to the Germans. In 962 he used this victory to have himself crowned emperor by the pope in Aachen, which had been the capital of the Carolingian Empire. He chose this site to symbolize his intention to continue the tradition of Charlemagne and to demonstrate papal support for his rule. Though it was not exactly clear what Otto was the emperor of, by the eleventh century people were increasingly using the term Holy Roman Empire to refer to a loose confederation of principalities, duchies, cities, bishoprics, and other types of regional governments stretching from Denmark to Rome and from Burgundy to Poland (Map 9.2).
Italy
The emperor and the pope also came into conflict over Sicily and southern Italy, disputes that eventually involved the kings of France and Spain as well. Between 1061 and 1091 a bold Norman knight, Roger de Hauteville, with papal support and a small band of mercenaries, defeated the Muslims and Byzantines who controlled the island of Sicily. Roger then faced the problem of governing Sicilys heterogeneous population of native Sicilians, Italians,
Greeks, Jews, Arabs, and Normans. Roger distributed scattered lands to his followers so no vassal would have a centralized power base. He took an inquest of royal property and forbade his followers to engage in war with one another. To these Norman practices, Roger fused Arab and Greek institutions, such as the bureau for record keeping and administration that had been established by the previous Muslim rulers.
In 1137 Rogers son and heir, Count Roger II, took the city of Naples and much of the surrounding territory in southern Italy. The entire area came to be known as the kingdom of Sicily (or sometimes the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies). Roger IIs grandson Frederick II (r. 12121250) was also the grandson of Frederick Barbarossa of Germany. He was crowned king of the Germans at Aachen (1216) and Holy Roman emperor at Rome (1220), but he concentrated all his attention on the southern parts of the empire. Frederick had grown up in multicultural Sicily, knew six languages, wrote poetry, and supported scientists, scholars, and artists, whatever their religion or background. In 1224 he founded the University of Naples to train officials for his growing bureaucracy, sending them out to govern the towns of the kingdom. He tried to administer justice fairly to all his subjects, declaring, We cannot in the least permit Jews and Saracens [Muslims] to be defrauded of the power of our protection and to be deprived of all other help, just because the difference of their religious practices makes them hateful to Christians, implying a degree of toleration exceedingly rare at the time.3
Because of his broad interests and abilities, Fredericks contemporaries called him the Wonder of the World. But ruling Sicily required constant attention, and Frederick was often gone, on campaigns in mainland Italy or on the Crusades holy wars sponsored by the papacy for the recovery of Jerusalem from the Muslims. He did not oversee his officials or the royal bureaucracy well, and shortly after he died, the kingdom fell to pieces. The pope, worried about being encircled by imperial power, called in a French prince to rule the kingdom of Sicily. Like Germany, Italy would remain divided until the nineteenth century.
The Iberian Peninsula
From the eleventh to the thirteenth centuries, power in the Iberian Peninsula shifted from Muslim to Christian rulers. Castile, in the north-central part of the peninsula, became the strongest of the growing Christian kingdoms, and Aragon, in the northeast, the second most powerful. Alfonso VIII (11581214) of Castile, aided by the kings of Aragon, Navarre, and Portugal, won a crushing victory over the Muslims in 1212, accelerating the Christian push southward. Over the next several centuries, successive popes gave Christian warriors in the Iberian Peninsula the same spiritual benefits that they gave those who traveled to Jerusalem, such as granting them forgiveness for their sins, transforming this advance into a crusade. Christian troops captured the great Muslim cities of Córdoba in 1236 and Seville in 1248. With this, Christians controlled nearly the entire Iberian Peninsula, save for the small state of Granada (Map 9.3). The chief mosques in Muslim cities became cathedrals, and Christian rulers recruited immigrants from western and southern Europe. The cities quickly became overwhelmingly Christian, and gradually rural areas did as well. Fourteenth-century clerical writers would call the movement to expel the Muslims the reconquista (reconquest), a
sacred and patriotic crusade to wrest the country from alien Muslim hands. This idea became part of Spanish political culture and of the national psychology.
What were the political and social roles of nobles?
The expansion of centralized royal power and law involved limiting the power of the nobility, but rulers also worked through nobles, who retained their privileged status and cultural importance. In fact, despite political, scientific, and industrial revolutions, the nobility continued to hold real political and social power in Europe into the nineteenth century.
Origins and Status of the Nobility
In the early Middle Ages noble status was generally limited to a very few families who either were descended from officials at the Carolingian court or were leading families among Germanic tribes. Beginning in the eleventh century, knights in the service of higher nobles or kings began to claim noble status. Although nobles were only a small fraction of the total population, the noble class grew larger and more diverse, ranging from poor knights who held tiny pieces of land (or sometimes none at all) to dukes and counts with vast territories.
Originally, most knights focused solely on military skills, but around 1200 there emerged a different ideal of knighthood, usually termed chivalry (shih-vuhl-ree). Chivalry was a code of conduct in which fighting to defend the Christian faith and protecting ones countrymen were declared to have a sacred purpose. (See Evaluating Visual Evidence: Saint Maurice, Ideal Knight.) Other qualities gradually became part of chivalry: bravery, generosity, honor, graciousness, mercy, and eventually gallantry toward women, which came to be called courtly love. The chivalric ideal created a new standard of masculinity for nobles, in which loyalty and honor remained the most important qualities, but graceful dancing and intelligent conversation were not considered unmanly.
Training, Marriage, and Inheritance
At about the age of seven, a boy of the noble class who was not intended for the church was placed in the household of one of his fathers friends or relatives. There he became a servant to the lord and received formal training in arms, learning to ride, wield a sword, hurl a lance, and shoot with a bow and arrow. Increasingly, noble youths learned to read and write some Latin. Formal training was concluded around the age of twenty-one, often with the ceremony of knighthood.
The ceremony of knighthood did not necessarily mean attainment of adulthood, power, and responsibility. Sons were completely dependent on their fathers for support. A young man remained a youth until he was in a financial position to marry that is, until his father died. Increasingly, families adopted primogeniture, with property passing to the oldest son. Younger sons might be forced into the clergy or simply forbidden to marry.
Once knighted, the young man traveled for two to three years, visiting other noble households, engaging in local warfare, and perhaps going on a crusade. He hunted, meddled in local conflicts, and did the tournament circuit. The tournament, in which a number of men competed from horseback (in contrast to the joust, which involved only two competitors), gave the young knight experience in pitched battle and a way to show off his masculinity before an audience. Since the horses and equipment of the vanquished were forfeited to the victors, the knight could also gain a profit. Everywhere they went, young knights stirred up trouble, for chivalric ideals of honorable valor and gallant masculinity rarely served as a check on actual behavior.
While noble girls were also trained in preparation for their future tasks, that training was quite different. They were often taught to read the local language and perhaps some Latin and to write and do enough arithmetic to keep household accounts. They also learned music, dancing, and embroidery and how to ride and hunt, both common noble pursuits. Much of this took place in the girls own home, but, like boys, noble girls were often sent to the homes of relatives or higher nobles to act as servants or ladies in waiting or to learn how to run a household.
Power and Responsibility
A male member of the nobility became fully adult when he came into the possession of property. He then acquired authority over lands and people, protecting them from attack, maintaining order, and settling disputes. With this authority went responsibility. In the words of Honorius of Autun:
Soldiers: You are the arm of the Church, because you should defend it against its enemies. Your duty is to aid the oppressed, to restrain yourself from rapine and fornication, to repress those who impugn the Church with evil acts, and to resist those who are rebels against priests. Performing such a service, you will obtain the most splendid of benefices from the greatest of Kings.5
Nobles rarely lived up to this ideal, however, and there are countless examples of nobles stealing church lands instead of defending them, tyrannizing the oppressed rather than aiding them, and regularly engaging in rapine and fornication rather than resisting them.
Women played a large and important role in the functioning of the estate. They were responsible for the practical management of the households inner economy cooking, brewing, spinning, weaving, caring for yard animals. When the lord was away for long periods, the women frequently managed the herds, barns, granaries, and outlying fields as well. Often the responsibilities of the estate fell to them permanently, as the number of men slain in medieval warfare ran high.
Throughout the High Middle Ages, fighting remained the dominant feature of the noble lifestyle. The churchs preaching and condemnations reduced but did not stop violence, and the military values of the nobles social class encouraged petty warfare and disorder. The nobility thus represented a constant source of trouble for the monarchy.
The Gregorian Reforms
During the ninth and tenth centuries the local church had come under the control of kings and feudal lords, who chose priests and bishops in their territories, granting them land and expecting loyalty and service in return. Church offices from village priest to pope were sources of income as well as positions of authority. Officeholders had the right to collect taxes and fees and often the profits from the land under their control. Church offices were thus sometimes sold outright a practice called simony (SIGH-muh-nee). Not surprisingly, clergy at all levels who had bought their positions or had been granted them for political reasons provided little spiritual guidance, and their personal lives were rarely models of high moral standards. Although the Roman Church officially required men to be unmarried in order to be ordained, there were many married priests and others simply living with women. Popes were chosen by wealthy Roman families from among their members, and after gaining the papal office, they paid more attention to their families political fortunes than to the health of the church.
Serious efforts to change all this began under Pope Leo IX (pontificate 10491054). Leo ordered clergy in Rome to dismiss their wives and invalidated the ordination of church officials who had purchased their offices. Pope Leo and several of his successors believed that secular or lay control over the church was largely responsible for its lack of moral leadership, so in a radical shift they proclaimed the church independent of secular rulers. The Lateran Council of 1059 decreed that the authority and power to elect the pope rested solely in the college of cardinals, a special group of priests from the major churches in and around Rome. The college retains that power today, though the membership has grown and become international.
Leos successor Pope Gregory VII (pontificate 10731085) was even more vigorous in his championing of reform and expansion of papal power; for that reason, the eleventh-century movement is frequently called the Gregorian reform movement. He denounced clerical marriage and simony in harsh language and ordered excommunication (being cut off from the sacraments and all Christian worship) for those who disagreed. He believed that the pope, as the successor of Saint Peter, was the vicar of God on earth and that papal orders were thus the orders of God. Gregory was particularly opposed to lay investiture the selection and appointment of church officials by secular authority. In February 1075 he held a council at Rome that decreed that clerics who accepted investiture from laymen were to be deposed and laymen who invested clerics were to be excommunicated.
In the late eleventh century and throughout the twelfth and thirteenth, the papacy pressed Gregorys campaign for reform of the church. The popes held a series of councils, known as the Lateran Councils, that ratified decisions ending lay investiture, ordered bishops to live less extravagantly, and ordered married priests to give up their wives and children or face dismissal. Most church officials apparently obeyed, though we have little information on what happened to the families. In other reforms, marriage was defined as a sacrament a ceremony that provided visible evidence of Gods grace and divorce was forbidd
RUBRIC
QUALITY OF RESPONSE |
NO RESPONSE |
POOR / UNSATISFACTORY |
SATISFACTORY |
GOOD |
EXCELLENT |
Content (worth a maximum of 50% of the total points) |
Zero points: Student failed to submit the final paper. |
20 points out of 50: The essay illustrates poor understanding of the relevant material by failing to address or incorrectly addressing the relevant content; failing to identify or inaccurately explaining/defining key concepts/ideas; ignoring or incorrectly explaining key points/claims and the reasoning behind them; and/or incorrectly or inappropriately using terminology; and elements of the response are lacking. |
30 points out of 50: The essay illustrates a rudimentary understanding of the relevant material by mentioning but not full explaining the relevant content; identifying some of the key concepts/ideas though failing to fully or accurately explain many of them; using terminology, though sometimes inaccurately or inappropriately; and/or incorporating some key claims/points but failing to explain the reasoning behind them or doing so inaccurately. Elements of the required response may also be lacking. |
40 points out of 50: The essay illustrates solid understanding of the relevant material by correctly addressing most of the relevant content; identifying and explaining most of the key concepts/ideas; using correct terminology; explaining the reasoning behind most of the key points/claims; and/or where necessary or useful, substantiating some points with accurate examples. The answer is complete. |
50 points: The essay illustrates exemplary understanding of the relevant material by thoroughly and correctly addressing the relevant content; identifying and explaining all of the key concepts/ideas; using correct terminology explaining the reasoning behind key points/claims and substantiating, as necessary/useful, points with several accurate and illuminating examples. No aspects of the required answer are missing. |
Use of Sources (worth a maximum of 20% of the total points). |
Zero points: Student failed to include citations and/or references. Or the student failed to submit a final paper. |
5 out 20 points: Sources are seldom cited to support statements and/or format of citations are not recognizable as APA 6th Edition format. There are major errors in the formation of the references and citations. And/or there is a major reliance on highly questionable. The Student fails to provide an adequate synthesis of research collected for the paper. |
10 out 20 points: References to scholarly sources are occasionally given; many statements seem unsubstantiated. Frequent errors in APA 6th Edition format, leaving the reader confused about the source of the information. There are significant errors of the formation in the references and citations. And/or there is a significant use of highly questionable sources. |
15 out 20 points: Credible Scholarly sources are used effectively support claims and are, for the most part, clear and fairly represented. APA 6th Edition is used with only a few minor errors. There are minor errors in reference and/or citations. And/or there is some use of questionable sources. |
20 points: Credible scholarly sources are used to give compelling evidence to support claims and are clearly and fairly represented. APA 6th Edition format is used accurately and consistently. The student uses above the maximum required references in the development of the assignment. |
Grammar (worth maximum of 20% of total points) |
Zero points: Student failed to submit the final paper. |
5 points out of 20: The paper does not communicate ideas/points clearly due to inappropriate use of terminology and vague language; thoughts and sentences are disjointed or incomprehensible; organization lacking; and/or numerous grammatical, spelling/punctuation errors |
10 points out 20: The paper is often unclear and difficult to follow due to some inappropriate terminology and/or vague language; ideas may be fragmented, wandering and/or repetitive; poor organization; and/or some grammatical, spelling, punctuation errors |
15 points out of 20: The paper is mostly clear as a result of appropriate use of terminology and minimal vagueness; no tangents and no repetition; fairly good organization; almost perfect grammar, spelling, punctuation, and word usage. |
20 points: The paper is clear, concise, and a pleasure to read as a result of appropriate and precise use of terminology; total coherence of thoughts and presentation and logical organization; and the essay is error free. |
Structure of the Paper (worth 10% of total points) |
Zero points: Student failed to submit the final paper. |
3 points out of 10: Student needs to develop better formatting skills. The paper omits significant structural elements required for and APA 6th edition paper. Formatting of the paper has major flaws. The paper does not conform to APA 6th edition requirements whatsoever. |
5 points out of 10: Appearance of final paper demonstrates the student’s limited ability to format the paper. There are significant errors in formatting and/or the total omission of major components of an APA 6th edition paper. They can include the omission of the cover page, abstract, and page numbers. Additionally the page has major formatting issues with spacing or paragraph formation. Font size might not conform to size requirements. The student also significantly writes too large or too short of and paper |
7 points out of 10: Research paper presents an above-average use of formatting skills. The paper has slight errors within the paper. This can include small errors or omissions with the cover page, abstract, page number, and headers. There could be also slight formatting issues with the document spacing or the font Additionally the paper might slightly exceed or undershoot the specific number of required written pages for the assignment. |
10 points: Student provides a high-caliber, formatted paper. This includes an APA 6th edition cover page, abstract, page number, headers and is double spaced in 12’ Times Roman Font. Additionally, the paper conforms to the specific number of required written pages and neither goes over or under the specified length of the paper. |
|
|
GET THIS PROJECT NOW BY CLICKING ON THIS LINK TO PLACE THE ORDER
Also, you can place the order at www.collegepaper.us/orders/ordernow / www.phdwriters.us/orders/ordernow
|
Do You Have Any Other Essay/Assignment/Class Project/Homework Related to this? Click Here Now [CLICK ME] and Have It Done by Our PhD Qualified Writers!! |
|
|